The aberrations associated with the anterior surface of the cornea can be computed from its shape after measurement ... Lower-order aberrations — defocus and astigmatism — are responsible ...

The shape of a cornea can be measured and represented ... demonstrating a large amount of against-the-rule astigmatism and inferior steepening (Figure 5). Pellucid marginal degeneration may ...

modern ophthalmologic practice has developed multiple methods to treat astigmatism at both the corneal and the lenticular level. Pathophysiologically, astigmatism results from asymmetry ...

An oval-shaped lens or cornea is largely driven by genetics. Astigmatism generally runs in families. If one or both parents have astigmatism, their children are also more likely to develop it.